Galaxy centric paradigm in Selenology problems

A.A.Barenbaum

Oil and Gas Research Institute of RAS

Moscow

M.I.Shpekin

Kazan Federal University

Kazan

Most part of the lunar surface relief was formed during the last 5 million years. The conclusion was received on the basis of detail analysis of large craters of the Moon, Earth, Mars and Mercury. Fall of the galactic comets 5 ¸ 0.6 million years ago, and the tectonomagmatic processes induced by the comets played major role in shaping of the Moon topography. Processes of tectonics and volcanism are occurring on the Moon today also. An example is the volcano found in the Tsiolkovsky crater on the far side of the Moon. The volcano has a height of 102m and is located almost in the bottom center of the crater with a diameter of 180km on a low oval elevation of plume nature 24-26km in size.

Introduction

It is believed that the relief of the lunar surface, as well as Mercury and Mars formed more than 3 billion years ago as a result of falls on these celestial bodies planetesimals remained after solar system formation in the interplanetary space [1, Hiesinger et al.]. This opinion justify the data on the crater, as well as measurements of the isotopic age of lunar rocks samples delivered to Earth, testifying to their formation more than 3 billion years ago [2. Hayes, Walker].

The spacecraft planetary exploration, made in recent years, however, cast doubt on such an ancient age of the surface topography, in particular, the Moon and Mars. At the poles of the celestial bodies large masses of frozen water were discovered and recently dry riverbeds can be seen on Mars [3, Wikipedia]. These and many other facts do not find a convincing explanation within the framework of existing concepts.

We suggest another interpretation of the observed facts. It is based on an analysis from the standpoint of galaxycentric paradigm [4, Barenbaum], the distribution of comet craters on planets and the discovery of modern volcano [5, Shpekin] in one of them -Tsiolkovsky crater on the Moon. Our studies show that most of the surface of the Moon, Mars and Mercury are completely saturated by such craters. Since their formation is associated with ejection of rocks from depths of ~ 3km or more, the old age of the lunar rocks samples brought to Earth says in first place about the time of solidification of the material, but not the actual age of the formation of the lunar surface.

The arguments and evidence that the lunar surface is hardly more than 5 million years, and the process of its formation continues today are given below.

General characteristics of the Moon relief

The main topographical features of the Moon, Mars and Mercury surface are covered with large craters uplifted areas - "continents" and cratered to a much less extent, lower parts - the "sea". It is significant that the continents tend to be the southern hemisphere of the celestial bodies and the sea is mainly located in its northern hemisphere.

There is also an important specificity in the morphology and distribution of craters. According to [6, Pike], two distinct populations of craters - diameter D <15km and D > 15km stand out on the Moon. The first are the most numerous in the seas, and the second - on the continent. The depth H of the first is approximately equal to 1/5 of their diameter, while the craters of the second type are smaller. The first type of craters has a simple structure and is best described by the dependence H = 0.196 D^1.01, whereas the latter are more complicated, have central hills and gentle slopes. In the diameter range 11 £ D £ 400km of these craters are followed depending on H = 1.044D^0.301. Thus, with the impinging appearance of craters the rocks from the depths of ~ 3 ¸7 km may be disposed on the surface.

The change of the craters types (on sense of curve type H(D)) is non-monotonic. The same applies to craters on Mars and Mercury[7, Meloch].

The distributions of craters by diameter are peculiar, as well as their density on the continents and seas (Fig. 1-a). For craters with ~D 100 km, their density on the continents is 100 times higher than in the seas, and at ~D 10 km, this difference is reduced to 10. Significant differences in the cratering degree in different planets appear only for D> 400km, where the density of craters on the Moon 4-10 times higher than on Mars.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The craters distribution on the Moon, Mars and Mercury are similar in configuration and are close in numerical parameters. Moreover, the distribution of marine craters on diameter is inverse quadratic function; while the continental craters are corresponding to exponential law. Since the last ones are much more numerous, the exponential distribution of craters by diameter is characteristic of these planets in general (Figure 1-b).

Bending curves in Fig. 1-a for the continent at D = 60 ¸ 100 km and line graphs for the seas associate with two [8, Voronov et al] or even three [10, Urey] bombing of space bodies of different ages, partially destroying the traces of earlier falls. Modeling the crater distribution by means of special sizing of crating bodies [8, Voronov et al], however, was inconclusive [7, Meloch].

It is more difficult to explain [11, Marov] similarity in the distribution of craters in so much different celestial bodies like the Moon, Mars and Mercury, differing in the geological history, the force of gravity on the surface and the distance from the asteroid belt and the Sun. The basic idea, that was involved in, is associated with the possibility of complete saturation of large craters, at least the surface of the continents [12, Gault; 13, Basilevsky; 14, Woronov; 8, Voronov et al]. This point was not managed to resolve. Currently accepted view is [7, Meloch] that planets are far from the state of saturation by the large craters.

 

A new approach to the problem

According to Barenbaum [4, Barenbaum], the Sun in its motion in the Galaxy once every 20-37 million years crosses the jet streams of material flowing from the center of our star system. In moments of these intersections duration ~ 2 ¸ 5 million years the solar system is exposed to intense bombardment by galactic comets. In the Earth's geological history, all these times are marked as the era of global natural catastrophes. These events are the straton boundaries of modern geochronological scale.

Last bombardment by galactic comets occurred in the period 0.6¸5.0 million years ago at the boundary of the Neogene and Quarter [15, Barenbaum et al]. Today, these comets are absolutely unavailable for detection from the Earth by means of astronomy. Therefore, we judge the properties of these objects by the consequences of their falling on our and other planets, as well as the results of their collision with the bodies of the asteroid belt [4, Barenbaum].

Available data suggest that the masses of the nuclei of galactic comets vary in the range from 10¹² to 10¹⁷ g, and their kinetic energy is from 10²⁰ to 10²⁵ J. The matter density of the comet is close to 1.0 g/cm³. It is composed of 80-90% water ice and of ~10-15% the carbon components.

Chemical elements heavier than carbon and oxygen have the space prevalence, but their content is not more than one percent [4, Barenbaum].

The galactic comets falls are characterized as "comet showers" when during a bombardmentљ ~љ 10⁴ ¸ 10⁷ such bodies could fall on the Earth. In contrast to large asteroids and comets of solar system these comets are characterized by anљ exponentialљ distribution of mass and energy, which causes the same distribution of the crater diameters created by them (Fig. 1-b).

The number of the falling comets at the same time is so great that full saturation of the surface by craters is reached even during one bomb period. The theoretical value of the "marginal" density of the crating for the Moon, Mars and Mercury is > 100 craters with a diameter D ³10 km area of 1 million km² [4, Barenbaum]. Because of the ecliptic obliquity at the angle of 62њ to the galactic plane in which the comets move, their latest bombing came mainly to the southern hemisphere of the planets. Therefore, the complete saturation of the craters tends only to that hemisphere of the Moon and Mars. Data in Fig. 1-bљ confirm this conclusion.

There is another important fact that should be noted in discussing the data of Fig. 1-b. This is the absence of craters on Earth, created by galactic comets. All the large craters on Earth are formed downs asteroids. The distribution of these craters by diameter in region D³70 km, slightly prone to observational selection, good to be a power by inversely quadratic dependence.

The facts and calculations suggest that the galactic comet nuclei are inevitably disintegrated in the atmospheres of Earth and Venus. This raises the powerful hypersonic jet [16, Barenbaum and Shuvalov], which does not create a crater, and the whole enormous kinetic energy of the comet is directed to the rocks heating up under the surface. Subsequently, this energy is released in different tectonic and volcanic processes [17, Barenbaum et al]. Typical manifestations of these processes [18, Barenbaum] in a "thin" lithosphere is the formation of seamounts on Earth, and shield volcanoes on Venus, while a powerful layer of the lithosphere - the so called phenomenon of "modern lifts".

This phenomenon is almost synchronous uplift of the surface at half the size of the continents of the globe during the past 5 million years. At the Antarctic continent, most of Africa, Central and North-eastern Asia, western North and South America, the Guiana and Brazilian shields, the Scandinavian Mountains, Greenland, the Urals, Siberian platform, the Alps and other structures [19, Artyushkov] the significant rise took place during this period.

The liftљ height was different. On most of the Pacific coast, it was the first hundreds of meters, on the Siberian platform 200-1000m, in South Africa 300-400 m in the west and 900-1200m in the east. The fastest growth occurred in mountainous terrain. Thus, the Arabian platform increased the height of 2 km, the Alps - up to 3 km, and the Himalayas - up to 6 km. The rise of asthenosphere is observed under most of the mountains. The lift leads to the uplift of crustal blocks in diameter ~n×(10-100) km to a height of up to ~1 km in distance between the elevations greater than their diameter on a number of flat sections. In some places the rise of the asthenosphere was accompanied by modern intense outpourings of magma [19, Artyushkov].

Similar processes occur on Mars. Calculations show that even 100 times less dense than Earth, its atmosphere leads to two important physical effects. On the one hand, it causes severe ablation of the galactic nuclei of comets, which reduces the diameter of a crater and shifts the distribution in Fig. 1-b relative to the Moon. And on the other hand, part of the energy goes into heating of comets asthenosphere under the southern hemisphere of Mars, which explains its uplifting at 2-4 km relatively flat and poorly cratered northern hemisphere. Huge volcanoes of Mars, with clear indexes of recent activity are probably the channels of excess heat from the asthenosphere of the planet.

Volcanic and tectonic processes have occurred on the Moon last 5 million years albeit on a smaller scale. They continue today.

Modern volcano tectonic processes on the Moon

Evidence of processes such as sloping "waterlogged" lava craters, craters broken by faults, etc.are marked by many researchers. The very same volcanic activity has been established on the Moon in1958 N.A.Kozyrev [20, N.A.Kozyrev]. He found a release of pulverized volcanic ash and gas in the Alphonsus crater with a diameter of 120 km on the visible side of the moon. Spectral analysis showed the presence in the ejection of molecules C₂, CN, etc.

Another, even more compelling example of volcanic processes is a volcano [5, Shpekin], discovered at the bottom of the Tsiolkovsky crater on the far side of the moon by the pictures of the "Apollo 17" crew. Crater with a diameter of 180km is characterized by a complicated structure and the central peak, typical for craters of commentary origin. Volcano height of 102m is located almost in the center of the crater on a small flat oval elevated of plume nature

 

Studied site to the East from central peak

Fig.3. Volcano and its vicinity in the rays of sunset. On fig.2 this place is outlined by a white rectangular.   (AS17-M-2798. Credit: NASA/JSC/Arizona State University)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

diameter 24-26 km. On high-resolution images lava flows are visible, indicating an almost contemporary eruption of the volcano (Fig.3).

Estimates made on the basis of images photogrammetry showed that the height of the volcano is about 102m. Diameter at the base of the volcanic cone is 1760 meters. Slopes of the volcano have an inclination toward the bottom of the crater about 7њ-8њ. Emissions of the material are observed only in one direction, and this trend points to the central peak of the Tsiolkovsky crater.

At closer look at the top of the cone, small craters are visible. This is probably the vent through which volcanic material is done, now resembling frozen lava. The diameter of the central crater is about 50-70m. Volcanic cone contains no small impact craters, indicating its modern age. Of the same say the reflective properties of the volcano, which are noticeably lighter than the surrounding terrain, because had not been yet covered with dark lunar dust. These facts speak in favor of recent and perhaps even modern activity of the volcano.

It is significant that the volcano is located in the center of the low rise of the plume origin. The combination of these structures on the Earth is typical of shallow magma chamber, resulting in the crash site of galactic comets [22, Barenbaum]. Probably, this camera has arisen and exists today under the bottom of the Tsiolkovsky crater.

Summary and conclusions

-        The time of formation of the main topographic structures on the Moon - its continents and seas, as well as all the planets are not uniquely associated with the age of rocks composing these structures.

-        The main factor that determined the modern look of the Moon, Mars and Mercury was the bombardment of the solar system by galactic comets between 5-0.6 million years ago.

-        Multiple galactic comets falling sharply increased flow on the Moon and planets, tectonic and volcanic processes that continue to this day.

-        An example of these processes is discovery at the Tsiolkovsky crater, apparently, an active volcano 102m high, crowning a low plume base diameter of 24-26 km.

In this regard it should be emphasized that the question of the formation of geodynamic pockets under large impact craters still have not been studied theoretically [23, Barenbaum].

References

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2.          J.F.Hays, J.Walker. Igneous lunar rocks. Cosmochemistry Moon and planets. Ed. A.P.Vinogradov, Moscow, Nauka, 1975, 274-282 (in Russian).

3.          Wikipedia. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_(planet).

4.          A.A.Barenbaum. Galaxycentric paradigm in geology and astronomy. Moscow, BH "LIBROKOM", 2010, 544 (in Russian).

5.          M.I.Shpekin. The Last <Apollo> Orbit Pass over the Tsiolkovsky Crater. Intern. Conf.: Astronomy and World. Heritage: Across Time and Continents, Kazan, Russia, 2009, 219-221.љљљљ http://www.ksu.ru/f6/ k8/bin_files/ols138.pdf.

6.          R.J.Pike. Size-depend in the shape of fresh impact craters on the Moon. Impact and explosion cratering Eds. D.Roddy, R.Pepin, R.Merrill, Pergamon Press, New Work, 1977, 489-509.

7.          G.Meloch. Formation of impact craters. Geological process. Moscow, Mir, 1994, 336p.

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14.       A.Woronov. Crater saturation and equilibrium: A Monte Carlo simulation. J. Geophys. Res., V.82, 1977, 2447-2456.

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16.       A.A.Barenbaum, V.V.Shuvalov. Modeling the interaction of galactic comets with the atmosphere. Physics extreme states of matter-2007, Ed. V.E.Fortov etc., Chernogolovka: IPCP, 2007, 139-140 (in Russian).

17.       A.A.Barenbaum, V.E.Hain, N.A.Yasamanov. Large-scale tectonic cycle: an analysis from the standpoint of the galactic concept. Vestnik MGU, Ser.4. Geology, ї 3, 2004, 3-16.

18.       A.A.Barenbaum. Processes in the Earth crust and upper mantle: problems of the mountain building and the newest terrestrial crust elevation. Connection between surface structures of the terrestrial crust with deep-seated ones. Materials XIV Intern. Conference, Petrozavodsk, Karelian Science Center RAS, P.1, 2008, 43-47 (in Russian).

19.       E.V.Artyushkov. The newest uplifts of terrestrial crust on continents as consequences of lifting of great hot matter masses from the mantle. Doklady Akad. Nauk, 336, ї5, 1994, 680-683 (in Russian).

20.       N.A.Kozyrev. Volcanic activity on the Moon. Priroda, ї 3, 84-87 (in Russian).

21.       M.I.Shpekin, A.A.Barenbaum. On the nature of the endogenous activity in the crater Tsiolkovsky on the Moon. Proceedings of the conference VNKSF-17, Ekaterinburg, 2011, 476-477, (in Russian).

22.       A.A.Barenbaum. A possible mechanism creating of dyke complexes by galactic comets. Proceedings of XLIII meeting on the Tectonics: Tectonics and Geodynamics of the fold belts and Phanerozoic platforms. V.1, Moscow, PH GEOS, 2010a, 38-42 (in Russian).

23.       A.A.Barenbaum. Modeling of falling to the ground of large cosmic bodies. Testing according to data of geology. Unresolved issues, Zababakhin readings: Proceedings of the X Intern. Conference, Snezhinsk, PH VNIITF, 2010b, 13 (in Russian).

24.       M.I.Shpekin, A.A.Barenbaum. The endogenous activity areas on the Moon. Problems of modelling and dynamics of complex multidisciplinary systems. 20-th International scientific Seminar, devoted to the 50-th Anniversary of first flight of Man in Space (flight of Soviet cosmonaut Yu.A.Gagarin). Proc. of thematic Session "Aviation and cosmonautics: fundamental scientific and applied aspects". Kazan, 2011, 22-23 (in Russian).