Sergey Pavlovich Korolev

Creator of the First Soviet Battle Missiles,

Carrier Rockets and Space Vehicles

B.E.Chertok

S.P.Korolev RKK "Energia"

Russia, 141017, MO, Korolev

 

S.P.Korolev started the process of consecutive creation of domestic missiles in Germany, 1945, where he was directed to research some trophy rocket technologies after enduring a great deal of misfortune at his native land. There I met him for the first time. I was appointed a head of joint Soviet-German Institute "Rabe" which was aimed to restore engineering documentation concerning trophy German rocket technologies and to search for equipment left after departure of the American army from Thuringia. At the end of September Yu.A.Pobedonoscev called me and asked to accept a lieutenant colonel Sergey Pavlovich Korolev and to tell him about our work. We were glad when new people came from the USSR to expand our joint work front. When I first met Korolev in my office in "Rabe" I knew only his name and nothing more about him.

At that time I had countless meetings but all except this have erased from my memory.

New officer uniform fitted him nicely. His dark eyes with a sparkle looked at me with interest and attention. His most distinct features were his high forehead and a big head on a short neck. After a brief acquaintance with the structure and functioning of our institute he departed.

I knew later that Korolev was one of the specialists put on the list which was submitted by General L.M.Gaidukov to Stalin with request to release them from a special prison of People's Committee for Home Affairs (PCHA) and send to Germany to support the work. Stalin approved it and thus fixed the destiny of Korolev, Glushko, etc. from that time forward.

Several days after our first meeting Korolev arrived in Bleiherode empowered to establish a new service aimed to study the techniques of prestarting missile preparation, ground, filling and launching equipment, the techniques of aiming and all required documentation.

In February, 1946 Korolev was called to Moscow where he was promoted to the rank of colonel and returned to Germany in good spirits. In a couple of days General Gaidukov arrived and announced the decision to unite all separately working groups in a single organization of "Nordhausen" institute based on "Rabe" institute.

Gaidukov was appointed a head of the institute and Korolev became an assistant director and chief engineer. Together with Mishin and Budnikov Korolev began the detailed work on a missile with range of 600 km (future R-2 missile).

In spring, 1946 Korolev returned from Moscow where he pushed for a historical resolution to be passed by Central Committee of the CPSU and Council of People's Commissars. This resolution provided for creation of rocket industry and also for creation of special state central rocket polygon and special military units. By that time two special trains had been equipped with testing laboratory facilities and construction and horizontal complex tests of 12 missiles had been almost completed. Korolev managed the works and convinced everyone that these were not restoration of German techniques but the beginning of a new vast direction in our country.

Folding such a large-scale activity took us almost 3 months and only in January, 1947 the whole staff of Soviet institute "Nordhauzen" and their families arrived in Moscow. Our train arrived at "Podlipki" station and we settled down in this place.

The former artillery plant which was our first production plant required fundamental reconstruction. Korolev and his colleagues struggled for production standards. D.F.Ustinov supported us. We needed a laboratory base which could allow to test and tryout the missiles.

Engineering staff including designers and technologists were wanted.

S.P.Korolev graduated from N.E.Bauman's Moscow High Technical College (MHTC) in 1930 and never forgot his "Alma Mater". On his initiative higher engineering courses at MHTC were established to retrain specialists for working in the field of rocket production industry. In autumn, 1947 many specialists who returned from Germany (among them were Korolev, Pobedonoscev, Kosmodemyanskiy, Ryazanskiy, and I) began lecturing at these courses. We were to pass on the experience we gained in Germany. I delivered lectures on "Control systems of distant range missiles". Specially for these courses Korolev prepared the first systematic work "The Design Basis for Ballistic Missiles of Distant Range". It was the first engineering guide for designers in our country. Many graduates of the courses became eminent specialists in the area of rocket industry (K.D.Bushuev, I.N.Sadovskiy, V.P.Makeev).

In 1948 Korolev and Pobedonoscev founded a department at MHTC which successfully works nowadays and is named "Space vehicles and carrier rockets". From 1950 to 1991 an outstanding scientist and correspondent member of Academy of Sciences V.I.Feodosyev was a head of the department. Being aware of Feodosyev's high authority in the field of strength and dynamics of thin-slab structures, Korolev involved him in consultancy at our design bureau. With Korolev's approval in 1958 a book "The Foundations of Rocket Engineering" written by V.I.Feodosyev and G.B.Sinyarev was published. This book covered practically all the aspects of rocket engineering, it was written at a high engineering level and influenced greatly on the level of space-rocket education in many universities of the USSR.

Institute "Nordhauzen" and later Research Institute-88 (RI-88) in Podlipki worked up 2 series 10 missiles each. We assembled series "N" and carried out the horizontal tests in Germany. Series "T" was made up of German devices and units in Podlipki at pilot-production plant of RI-88. The devices and units were finalized and tested at Moscow research institutes and design bureaus.

In September, 1947 we went by special train to Kapustin Jar where our Ministry of Defense established State Central Polygon for rocket tests. The first launch was realized at 10.47 a.m. on the 18^th of October. It was a series "T" missile. The missile covered 205,7 km and deviated to the left almost by 30 km.

We launched 11 German missiles and 5 of them hit the mark. The missile reliability was approximately the same as it was during the war in Germany.

The launch in autumn, 1947 was a step in our one and a half year activity in Germany. Hard work in Germany in 1945-1946 and experience of German specialists enabled to save means and time in formation of our domestic rocket engineering and to gain practice for a high-speed unassisted development of this new and promising sphere.

Our work in Germany also gave some other beneficial effects. The leading specialist in our native rocket engineering was defined. It was S.P.Korolev who also organized and headed the Council of Chief Designers which was unprecedented in the history of world science.

The Council consisted of: S.P.Korolev - Chief Designer of rocket system as a whole; V.P.Glushko - Chief Designer of liquid-propellant rocket engines; N.A.Pilyugin - Chief Designer of autonomous control system; M.S.Ryazanskiy - Chief Designer of radio navigation and radio control systems; V.P.Barmin - Chief Designer of ground filling equipment, transport and launching equipment; V.I.Kuznetzov - Chief Designer of gyroscopic command devices.

M.V.Keldysh also played an important role as he was reputed the main theorist in cosmonautics and set up a mathematical school which provided solution of many practical problems of rocket dynamics. As the scope of activity expanded, the Council involved more specialists. They appreciated Korolev as a leader and commander of Soviet cosmonautics. Each of the listed had an official rank of Chief Designer. Each of them founded his own school in a particular field. Their ideas could be developed only with assistance of scientific potential and powerful industry of the whole country. In the area of ideological influence of the Council hundreds of plants, branch, academic, military and high school scientific organizations were involved.

Ministers and government officials related to the rocket industry could not withstand the Council of the Chiefs.

In Germany we realized that a single organization or a Ministry was not capable of developing rocket engineering. We needed state cooperation and above all we lacked high level instrument engineering, radio engineering and propulsion engineering. We needed an overall technical culture rise in the country. A great work had to be done before adding R-1 to the armory. In addition to substitution of materials and restoration of technological process of details and rocket units production in new conditions, we realized that A-4 missile was not brought to perfection in Germany. We had to do this to add the missile to our armory and only after a number of test series the first domestic missile complex with R-1 missile was added to our armory in 1950.

In a year after adding R-1 missile to the armory the flight tests of R-2 missile complex were accomplished and it was added to the armory with the following characteristics: launching mass of 2000 kg, maximum range of 600 km (which exceeded R-1 more than two times), warhead mass of 1008 kg. R-2 missile was equipped with radio correction to improve accuracy in side direction. Thus despite increase of distance its accuracy was not worse than of R-1 missile. The R-2 propulsion thrust was augmented by overloading the R-1 engine. Except for the distance R-2 also differed from R-1 with its detaching head and some elements of construction namely with addition of one fuel tank and transferring of instrument module to the lower airframe part.

In 1955 the tests were accomplished and R-5 missile complex was added to the armory with the following characteristics: 29 tons of launching mass, maximum range of 1200 km, warhead mass of 100 kg. The accuracy was improved with help of combined (autonomous and radio) control system. The missile complex R-5M being an upgrade of R-5 complex was the first complex in the world which had a carrier rocket with a nuclear warhead. The battle missiles R-1, R-2, R-5, P-5M were single-staged and liquid-propellant. The fuel components were liquid oxygen and ethanol. The missiles R-11, R-11M, R-11FM added to the armory in 1955-1956, operated on high-boiling fuel components like nitric acid and kerosene.

The R-11 missile was a second one in our country that carried a nuclear head. The R-11M missile was designated for submarine launch.

The intercontinental missile was being developed. A number of systems that had been preliminarily tested on R-5 missiles had to be worked through.

At this time Korolev propounded an extensive program of space and upper atmosphere exploration and investigation of living organisms' reaction on a high-altitude launch. So a series of high-altitude missiles was produced. Their launches allowed to obtain the data on space primary radiation composition and to define the solar radiation spectral distribution. Long before "Vostok" spacecrafts were created, the heads of battle missiles carried dogs and smaller living creatures.

The nuclear weapon - "ordinary" and hydrogen one - was already invented. Our R-5 missile for the first time in the world combined its fantastic power and a high-speed flight. But the USA were still out of the range of our R-5. The R-7 missile was aimed to deprive them of their invulnerability.

The year of 1957 was to become a birthday of the first intercontinental missile R-7.

In February, 1957 we first met in a desert of Kazakhstan, not in a lived-in Kapustin Jar. A great construction of polygon was in process. We aimed to make the first launches there in 3 months. Owing to heroic efforts of military constructors the main buildings were accomplished and the first launch of R-7 was assigned on 15 May 1957.

On the 6^th of May the rocket was mounted on a launcher and a long cycle of prelaunching tests began. At the end of 14 May 1957 all services reported on readiness for the 15^th of May. The launch took place but the controlled rocket flight continued only for 98 seconds. The fire in aft section led to propulsion thrust decrease and the unit detached without any command. The control rocket motors could not cope with disturbance and on the 103^rd second a command was given for emergency engine shutoff.

The second rocket was delivered to a launching site on 15 June, 20 days after the first launch. All preparations and prelaunching tests were conducted in a shorter term and already in 5 days the rocket was fueled and ready for launch. However it refused to leave the launcher. After a comprehensive investigation the reason was clear. Being mounted at the plant, the nitrogen blow valve was installed with a 180њ error. Due to this mistake a nitrogen blow was not stopped before the launch and kerosene refused to burn in a compound of oxygen and nitrogen.

The third launch on 12 July 1957 also failed. During preparations for the 4^th launch Korolev visited Moscow to meet with atomic scientists. They suggested a new warhead for R-7 which possessed lower power but two times lower weight. This increased the range of our rocket by 4000 km. I was surprised that Korolev was not depressed by the failure of the last launch. Despite the failures he intended to insist on launching artificial Earth satellites carried by two rockets. The Americans announced that they had prepared such a sensation on the occasion of International Geophysical Year.

While the negotiations were carried on in Moscow we had to prepare the forth launch carefully. The fourth launch took place but unfortunately I missed it for I was in Burdenko's hospital with a mysterious disease. My colleagues who visited me told me that after this successful launch the missile head was not found in Kamchatka. Most likely it burned or crumbled in dense atmosphere not far from the ground.

On 7 September the last (fifth) of the prepared rockets was launched.

Its head successfully reached Kamchatka but crumbled in atmosphere. Nevertheless some pieces reached the ground and were found. They showed that the missile overshoot the aim only by 3 km and deviated to the left by 1 km.

Mishin had to deal with a missile head and Korolev had to prepare for the satellites launches. The twenty-four-hour urgent work on production of a polished ball with four long aerial tails proceeded at the plant.

At the end of September the design bureau became deserted. All the staff with the ball, devices and fairing left for the polygon. The satellite launch being wedged in the flight and design test program of intercontinental battle missile created a furor in the world and a real panic on the banks of the Potomac river. It was the sixth launch of R-7. It was so much spoken of and written about that I can hardly add something new.

Only after a year many of those who condemned Korolev's deviation to the field of rocket engineering appreciated his ability to foresee, to organize work with available staff and to cooperate actively to solve his problems as soon as possible.

Among all the missiles at the beginning of space age the R-7 missile lived the longest life. After being added to the armory it had to work on two fronts: its battle two-staged modification was to be in combat readiness, and its space modification with 3^rd and 4^th stages had to satisfy our aspiration for Universe exploration. Korolev was a tough leader and a very single-minded person. He created the first nuclear head missile, the first intercontinental ballistic missile, the first submarine launch missile, the first interplanetary vehicles. But this was only a means for him. The main object was a manned space flight and also to be the first in the world.

Korolev was the first who started development of "Molniya" communication satellite. When the first chromatic signal reached Vladivostok, he turned this field into an independent design bureau. This also concerned some other fields: automatic interplanetary stations, engines, missiles for submarines. Succeeding in solving one problem he took up the next one. But the previously solved problem was not put aside. Korolev realizing its importance struggled for issuing a Decree of Central Committee which could guarantee the development of this direction. But I repeat that the main purpose for Korolev was a manned space flight. And all other fields were just a means to reach it.

The age of manned space flights officially began on 12 April 1961 with Gagarin's flight.

For us, the space vehicle creators, the real reference point was connected with 15 May 1960, when the launch of 1-лP satellite vehicle opened the preparation for a manned space flight.

Becoming free from "Luna", Korolev became thoroughly engrossed in an excitable race for the first manned space flight. Who was going to win it: Russian or American? We realized it clearly that we could not lose 3 years after first satellite launch. The main group of developers and testers and the spacecraft itself left for polygon on 28 April. Korolev told me to stay until the navigation and descent system was ready and worked through. The spacecraft was delivered without it. This system for 1-лP spacecraft was fundamentally new and rather complicated in its configuration. We needed to provide a high accuracy of navigation while producing a retroburn to guarantee the return of descent vehicle to the Earth and not simply to the Earth but to our territory. We arrived at the polygon on the 3^rd of May. The autonomous tests of the system mounted on 1-лP began on 5 May. At 5 a.m. on 15 May the launch was successfully completed and the spacecraft was put into orbit. According to the preliminary calculations the satellite had to be in orbit for a long time. Our first ball-shaped descent vehicle had no heat shielding. Therefore it would be burned out at the aerocapture but the navigation process before retardation, the process of aerocapture had to be checked. One must note that our first spacecraft had such a navigation equipment that it differed from modern one like Columbus's carvel differed from a nuclear-powered submarine.

Commands reached the spaceship but the retroengine responded at an odd random retroburn direction. Instead of spacecraft deceleration it resulted in some accelerating and the satellite vehicle changed its orbit. The hermetical capsule detached from the satellite vehicle.

Korolev decided that the feeling of euphoria after the partial success had to be directed to speeding-up the preparation of other spaceships and settling the matter of a manned space flight.

The next satellite vehicle was equipped with a heat shielding. For the first time it had to return to the Earth with dogs alive on board. The rocket was launched on 28 July. The satellite vehicle 1K ї1 was equipped and prepared far better than its predecessor 1-лP and carried two dogs on board: Lisichka and Chaika. But they were never to reach the space. The spacecraft crashed not far from the launch place because of the first stage breakdown. Already in August we started preparations of the 3^rd spacecraft 1Kї2. It was a fully equipped spacecraft with a wide set of devices for scientific researches including medical-biological experiments. It also carried two dogs aboard: Belka and Strelka. The dogs were kept in rather comfort conditions - they were put into a hermetical capsule of an ejectable container equipped with life support systems. The satellite vehicles (and later "Vostok" spaceships) had much more complicated landing systems than the modern one. Two landing systems were required: for the descent module and for the astronaut ejected from the latter. The carrier with the spacecraft was launched on 19 August and the space vehicle was put into satellite orbit. The landing was conducted with help of reserve-emergency system with 10 km deviation from the design point. The dogs were alive. Three more launches preceded Gagarin's flight: two of them with dogs aboard and the third one took place on 25 March 1961 and carried a dog Zvezdochka and a dummy "Ivan Ivanovich".

The last spacecraft was supplied with the same radio equipment as the piloted vehicle had. The launch was successful and the landing occurred somewhere near Votkinsk.

On 29 March 1961 a session of VPK where Korolev suggested a manned space flight on "Vostok" spaceship was conducted. A chairman of meeting Ustinov formulated the decision "To accept an offer of Chief Designers:".

Presidium of Central Committee of CPSU approved the decision on the 3^rd of April. In 5 days, on 8 April, at the session of the State Committee which was conducted at the polygon, the first task for the first astronaut was approved. After the public part of the meeting the reduced complement of the Committee according to Kamanin's offer approved Gagarin as the main astronaut and Titov as the reserve one.

On 12 April 1961 Korolev accomplished his main mission: he launched a man piloted spaceship and did it for the first time in the world.

 

 

Boris Evseevich Chertok, RAS Academician; Scientific Advisor of Korolev RKK "Energia", Chairman of RAS Committee on developing scientific legacy of outer Space investigation Pioneers; graduated from MEI; нember of International Academy of Astronautics. All professional activity is connected with RKK "Energia"; direct creator of developments of control systems for Artificial Satellites of Earth, for "Vostok", Voskhod", "Molniya-1", "Soyuz", "Salyut" spacecrafts; for "Mir" SC; for "Luna-9", "Venera-1", "Venera-2", "Mars-1" stations. The scientific interests area: space flight mechanics, space systems control, problems of information theory, history of outer Space investigation.