Manned astronautics: perspectives and problems in the XXI Century S.K.Krikalyov,
I.G.Sokhin, A.A.Kuritsyn Priorities of manned space exploration development as one the means of sustainable
development are considered. The nearest prospects of manned space exploration
will be related with lunar and Mars missions. Interplanetary missions put
forward brand-new demands for safety and efficiency of space crew activity. Solution of these problems should be already
sought for nowadays. Introduction Manned space exploration has passed a 50-year
way: from the first one-pass space flight of a man to the International Space
Station establishment. Origin of space age in the sixties of the 21st
century is not just a technological milestone in civilization development. It should
be realized that a new stage has come at which the scale of human activity is
changing. Analysis of modern astronautics priorities and its ways of
development in present-day world allows concluding that astronautics has
acquired a new attribute and space policy has become a priority of state policy
in developed states. Space strategy is first of all a response to relevant
problems of economic, social, scientific and technological development, assurance
of global safety of humanity. In the 21st century the space activity paradigm
has changed. Strategic race has been replaced with priority of steady
development and orientation toward consumers. Space is becoming the greatest
resource of humanity development, and its exploration is a condition for steady
development and human survival as well. Priorities of astronautics development Our daily routine has become dependent on space
technological systems. First of all it depends on telecommunication, navigation
and meteorological systems. A well-known thesis about space technologies as a
locomotive of high-technology industries development takes a new, clearer form.
The entire industries cannot develop without space technologies, information and
services. It follows from the above that nowadays astronautics is not a way to
gain authority or an inherited problem; it is a sphere that determines the innovation
development capabilities. Manned flights on near-earth orbits helped to
form a true picture of the Earth surface, of many planets, dry land and oceans.
They gave a new vision of the globe as a life focus, and understanding that
human and nature are inseparable. Astronautics afforded a real opportunity for handling
important national economic problems: upgrading international communication
systems, long-term weather forecasting, development of sea and air transport
navigation. At the same time astronautics has a great
potential. Analysts concluded that space investigations would influence the
humanity progress in the 21st century more than any other field of knowledge.
There is no other field of scientific knowledge that would influence our
environment perception as significantly; each new step in space causes the largest
number of new challenges; only astronautics is able to answer the question
about Universe past and future and humanity fate. Therefore the prime priority
of international space cooperation is realization of the new Global research
strategy, and the first steps have already been done. Many scientists believe that astronautics is
able to assist in solution of the world energy problem by means of new space
devices. Such equipment will receive and convert solar energy. Besides, it is
possible to run power-intensive industries built in space. Astronautics offers
opportunities to establish a global geophysical information system enabling to
elaborate the Earth model as well as a general theory of processes which occur
on its surface, in atmosphere and near-Earth environment. Many authoritative
scientists are in favor of immediate manned space exploration. They remind that
a plenty of asteroids and comets threaten the Earth. There are many other space
achievements that can be successfully used in other spheres. Development of advanced technologies means the
beginning of new level of human evolution. That is a Pointed and Conscious
Evolution. It follows from this phrase that pointed evolution has an objective.
An ordinary evolutionary process is based on natural selection mechanisms and
directed only by local optimums. An artificial selection performed by people is
directed towards formation and reinforcement of desired features. However, the
absence of efficient evolution mechanisms has so far restricted an area of
artificial selection application. An engineering process of global tasks
statement and their realization replaces a long and gradual process of
favorable changes accumulation. New advanced technology systems will strive for
an optimal physical state, where safety and efficient functioning will be
guaranteed. This is absolutely different from life development on the Earth, as
well as humanity evolution up to our days, where the activity has been mainly
focused at safety and functionality support. Nowadays,
K.E.Tsiolkovsky's foresight seems to be timely. He said: <:the humanity should
live and develop on the planet during the initial, embryonic stage. The planet
is a cradle for humanity. But it is impossible to stay in a cradle for the
whole life. The humanity should explore the near-Earth environment. It will be
the second phase of its evolution. Such
a transition is inevitable, like transformation of a chrysalis into a
butterfly. At the second stage of development the Humanity will explore the
Solar System. Then the third stage will begin, i.e. time to explore the Galaxy.
People will populate the universe at this stage, and a biological evolution of
people as biological species will occur. This is due to the fact that space
exploration is a transition to a new habitat. Life in an interstellar medium
will transform physical and spirit aspects of a man. The human race will mutate
and a New Man will appear>. Leading Space Powers believe that the Future of
manned astronautics is associated with development of new transport vehicles
and orbital assembly systems intended for promising space programs, including
Lunar and Martian ones. It is well-known that the works on manned lunar
programs were carried out in the Works in the Nowadays the leading space countries are again
interested in our nearest space neighbor exploration. Permanent manned lunar
base is considered a promising point of -
the
Moon is a natural object of the Solar System, which is the nearest to the Earth
and reachable by existing spacecrafts; -
there
are resources necessary for further space exploration and other humanity needs
(reserves of hydrogen, oxygen, helium-3 and other elements); -
natural
platform to try-out methods and ways of human life and activity under space
conditions; -
natural
laboratory for space science, perfect place for astronomy observations. The program will assist in scientific progress,
engineering and technology upgrade, attractiveness of space industry for young
generation of scientists and researchers, increase of society confidence and
interest towards space exploration, and this will ultimately lead to further
Humanity Advancement to the Universe. In the past, interest towards the Moon was
mainly caused by curiosity, demonstration of scientific and technical progress
as well as expression of political ambitions by the leading superpowers. Today
the humanity searches for the ways to develop lunar resources, to explore them
for scientific purposes, to test new spacecrafts and equipment for future Mars
missions, to protect the Earth against asteroids with establishment of an
International cooperation, etc. An ambitious task in space industrialization is
development of resources on the Moon, Mars and other planets of the Solar
System. Exploration of Moon soil using automatic and manned spacecrafts
registered subsoil rich with iron, aluminum, manganese, chromium, titanium and
other less-common metals. There is enough oxygen in a fixed form of metal oxides
and silicon on the Moon. Specific lunar environment (vacuum and small gravity)
allows high-tech manufacturing of different metals, glass-ceramics, special
glasses and powder building materials at the lunar base. Lunar production will
provide 90% of needs for materials necessary to build near-Earth satellite
solar power plants. Energy intensity of cargos delivery from the Moon to space
is much less than from the Earth, because of different escape velocities: V=2.36
km/sec for the Moon and 11.2 km/sec for the Earth. Furthermore, there is no
atmosphere on the Moon. Russian concept of the
Moon exploration Nowadays the Moon exploration program is being
developed according to the project of Manned Astronautics Conception in 1.
Preliminary
stage of manned lunar program (2012-2020): the Moon exploration using
automatics operating on lunar orbit and lunar surface. 2.
First
stage of manned lunar program (2016-2025): development of launch means and
transport vehicles of new generation (new type of manned platform to assemble
spacecrafts on near-Earth orbit for lunar and Mars missions), implementation of
manned lunar flight, establishment of Russian station on circumlunar orbit, landing
and transit of transport vehicles running between the Earth and the Moon (Moon
landing readiness by 2025). 3.
Stage
of orbital station deployment on the Moon and creation of Lunar base infrastructure
(2027 - 2032) able to support lunar resources development, space exploration,
implementation of asteroid safety system and Mars expeditionary complex. Solution of these tasks is impossible without specialists
working on orbit and on lunar surface. Manned lunar mission aimed at its
scientific-and-industrial exploration is much more complicated compared not both
to near-earth orbital flights and to earlier missions with short-time moon
falls. It is conditioned by peculiarities of flight and long stay on the Moon with
all the tasks to be resolved by astronauts. Problems of Lunar
mission implementation The following peculiarities should be taken
into account: -
new
tasks and conditions of space flight; -
great
number of various dynamic modes and operations associated with docking and
undocking of vehicles, lunar landing and takeoff, etc.; -
requirement
to assemble the lunar complex on the near-earth orbit; -
probability
of unstable communication with the Earth; -
delay
in transmission and reception of radio messages; -
probability
of various obscure emergency situations; -
complication
or sometimes impossibility of urgent assistance from the Earth in off-nominal
situations; -
space
debris in the near-Earth space at the trajectory of lunar complex flight; -
high
level of space radiation (galactic rays, protons and free neutrons, solar
bursts); -
low
intensity of magnetic fields in the interplanetary space and on the Moon; -
changes
of gravity conditions during the flight; -
necessity
to choose a place for lunar landing; -
control
of vehicle landing on the Moon surface in empty space; -
necessity
to be immediately involved in active operations after lunar landing; -
hypogravity
on the Moon (16% of the Earth gravity); -
greater
curvature of the Moon surface; -
dust
soil on the Moon surface; -
absence
of obvious landmarks on the Moon surface; -
high
probability of traumas and decompression disease during activities on the Moon
surface; -
atmospheric
entry with escape velocity; -
increased
risk of off-design landings with big uncertainties in distances when reentering
with escape velocity and two-stage
reentry, which will complicate search and rescue activities ("Zond" vehicles
flights in the framework of lunar program demonstrated a great chance of
landing on ocean area); -
impossibility
of immediate termination of mission and return to the Earth. These conditions and tasks trigger new
problems, bring significant changes in principles of such mission management,
in particular, crew interaction with mission control center and mission support
infrastructure, and crew training. One of the most critical stages of lunar mission
will be the initial period of staying on the Moon. Capabilities and time for
rehabilitation and rest will be limited, and necessity of immediate active work
will be high enough. Among medical problems we can point the
adaptation to lunar conditions, problems of medical treatment, work and rest
time distribution during a long stay on the Moon, problems of rehabilitation
after return back to the Earth. A psychological problem of lunar crew remoteness
from the Earth can be marked as an essentially new problem. One of the most
important tasks of lunar missions' medical support is creation of radiation
safety system. Life support system will also be required. The abovementioned features of a lunar mission
are potential sources of new hazards, which under certain conditions might have
negative consequences and result in off-nominal situations. Some of these hazards have occurred during the manned
flights before, but they are familiar in other fields of human activities.
However, the specific nature of a space flight can significantly change the
process of hazard progress, therefore additional analysis and special research
are needed to find the ways to eliminate the hazards. Other types of hazards in spite of their
novelty have obvious consequences and the countermeasures are clear. Ways of problem
solving International Space Station as an experimental
platform is suggested for development and testing of new promising technologies
for interplanetary space missions. In particular, a pattern of the manned Moon flyby
with the intermediate visit of ISS can be implemented. First, the transport
vehicle crew docks to the ISS and works in accordance with the station's
program. Then, after orbital insertion of the upper stage, the transport
vehicle crew docks with the upper stage and perform a lunar mission flight with
subsequent return to the Earth. Such pattern will enable to practice lunar
flight technologies in the nearest future. Furthermore, in order to create and test new promising
technologies of human activities during interplanetary missions it is
reasonable to create some experimental environment for crewmembers during their
missions to the ISS, more or less corresponding to conditions of interplanetary
missions. For this purpose, the following is required: -
to
model onboard the ISS conditions of the crew autonomous activities, including a
number of off-nominal situations; -
to
generate new principles of mission control and interaction between the crew and
MCC; -
to
develop and test new means and methods of crew psychological support; -
to
create and try out some smart means of information support of the crew, etc. All suggested measures should undoubtedly be
supported by efficient technologies of selection
and training of astronauts which should be further developed during ISS missions. Such an approach, in the authors' opinion, will
enable to consistently and gradually move towards the intended objective -
space exploration. References 1. Project of manned astronautics
development in 2. А.D.Ursul, А.L.Romanovich. Concept of sustainable development and safety problem.
2001 http://filosof.historic.ru/books/item/f00/s00/z0000706/index.shtml
[retrieved 3. S.K.Krikalev,
A.Yu.Kalery, I.V.Sorokin. "Crew on the ISS: Creativity or Determinism?" IAC
Paper IAC-08-B3.1.4, 2008. |
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