Some meditations

 

On social and technological aspects of Russian Cosmonautics, part I

G.M.Chernyavsky

"Cosmonit" Science and Technology Center, Russian Space Systems Corp.

Russia

The study is connected with important problems of Cosmonautics development in whole, with discussion of historical aspects and scientific perspectives [1-32]. In article it is presented 10 sections.

Introduction. World-outlook views of cosmism. Cosmonautics' Mission. Methodological basis of cosmonautics. Goals and tasks of space activity. Technological means of cosmonautics. Country that paved the way into space. Space exploration at the beginning of the 21^st century. Space activity of new Russia. Afterword.

Here it is published first (I) part of article; second (II) part is prepared for next issue.

	The subject of the review was evoked by the discussion [29] of Jesco von Puttkamer's (NASA) question: "I'm trying to understand, how could it happen that the Soviet Union appeared to be First in Space".

 

 

 

 

 

1. Introduction

The semicentenary Anniversary of the flight of the first astronaut - the citizen of our country - seems to be a good occasion not only for panegyrics to our participation in the historical past, but also for reflection about how carefully we - his compatriots - save and use the heritage left by space exploration pioneers.

The grandeur of events that entailed the social sphere extension up to space scale is obvious.

Discussion on the expediency and urgency of "cosmization" of life on the Earth was relatively short.

Space is gradually transforming into a habitat, and the mankind realizes that beyond the space environment the Civilization is doomed.

Today, more than 130 of 247 countries on the Earth use the space activity results. As to their contribution, it is determined by the resources and mentality of a state.

Space activity stimulates progress and represents an indicator of material, intellectual and spiritual level of society.

At the present stage, space activity develops harmoniously and at prompt paces, though its productivity is less impressive, than in the 20^th century.

The forward motion is characteristic for an overwhelming majority of national space exploration programs.

Our country, which has earlier paved the way into space for mankind, is an exception. In the nineties of the past century, owing to social upheaval, space activity in Russia first degraded and then stagnated.

This analytical review gives the author's opinion on the sources and possible consequences of space activity stagnation in Russia and also, in summary, dares give some recommendations.

Cosmonautics is known to represent a synthesis of knowledge in the field of natural, engineering and social sciences which provide extension of the social sphere, which possesses multiple-aspect environment, allowing for the matter and physical fields of space.

The author considers it possible to confine himself to discussion of social and technological aspects as more dynamical ones than the natural environment, and tries to elucidate their direct relationship.

Elucidation of engineering aspects was promoted by the author's professional skills and availability of extensive literature.

As to social aspects, their consideration is based on the author's life experience and civic positions and does not claim to be a summary review.

For more complete presentation of the range of problems, the author took the advantage of his knowledge on cosmonautics' nature and methodological bases.

The paper also covers cosmonautics' aims and technological means, and tries to analyze space activity in the world at the beginning of the 21^st century. Some materials on the history of Russian cosmonautics occurred to be useful as well.

2. World-outlook views of cosmism

Human-Space relationship represents one of the major world-outlook problems.

Space mysteries have attracted the earthmen since the ancient times. Such immanent inner mechanisms as striving for knowledge, inclination to relocation and the habitat extension, creativity, ambitions, reverie that have been worked out during the struggle for existence have attracted people to navigation, aerostation, and flights into outer space.

Interest in space flights was reflected in science-fiction novels, the first of which was the story by the ancient Greek satirist Lucian of Samosata. This story was published in 160 A. D. in "A True Story" by Lucian. Jules Verne, Herbert Wells and other science-fiction writers dreamt of the interplanetary flights.

The great Kant wrote in the 19^th century:

"Two things fill the soul with new and ever stronger astonishment and veneration, the more often we reflect on them, - this is a stellar sky above me and a moral law inside me".

An early man perceived the world as a system of homogenous relations, where a man had no special place. Society progress and accumulation of knowledge led to cosmogonic myths with their gods and heroes. Simultaneously, the rational views were outlined. The philosophical idea about space as an ontology of world's harmony and regularity was formed in the ancient Greece. Ancient Greeks' philosophy was cosmocentrism. A man and space were thought to be interrelated.

During the Renaissance, anthropocentrism reinforced by Ptolemy's geocentricism appeared as a stage of the world comprehension. Finally, in the 18-19^th centuries, N.Copernicus' heliocentricism allowed to pass from natural philosophical views of the Universe to the natural-scientific theory.

In the 20^th century a new science - cosmology - arose as an astrophysical theory of the Universe as a whole. It was based on learning the most general properties of the available part of the universe. Cosmology rests upon the basic fundamental physical theories (general relativity theory, field theory, etc.).

Modern cosmology achievements are associated with A.Einstein, Russian scientist A.Friedman, who updated the principles of relativity theory, American astronomer E.Hubble, who submitted the idea of receding galaxies, and others.

The empirical basis of cosmology is an extragalactic astronomy. Its evolution is also promoted by the optical and radio astronomy.

In Russia, Peter the Great was the first who adopted western system of the Academy of Sciences and universities during the modernization reforms.

In the 18-19^th centuries, scientific elite was attracted from the West, and Russian scientists were consolidated.

New trends emerged in science and the first scientific schools were established.

The works by Russian scientists acquired worldwide recognition. Among them there were: A.M.Butlerov, V.I.Vernadsky, S.P.Krasheninnikov, P.I.Lebedev, N.I.Lobachevsky, M.V.Lomonosov, D.I.Mendeleyev, I.I.Mechnikov, M.V.Ostrogradsky, A.S.Popov, N.M.Przhevalsky, I.M.Sechenov, B.S.Jacobi and others. At the beginning of the 20^th century, a unique field of world-outlook knowledge appeared in Russia - the cosmism.

Russian cosmists, many centuries after Greek cosmocentrism, announced the problem of man-space interrelation in a new way. It was a weighty contribution of the Russian school of philosophers to the science.

Emergence of cosmism was boosted by successes in studying the biosphere, as well as by attempts to associate its evolution with the origination of a man and his role in space.

Cosmism, stated in works by V.I.Vernadsky, N.F.Fedorov, K.E.Tsiolkovsky, A.LChizhevsky, represents an inhomogeneous, in its content, flow of thoughts; it includes both philosophical and natural-scientific aspects.

A.M.Chizhevsky wrote about the space influence on life processes: "A living cell represents a result of cosmic, solar and telluric effect; it is an object that was generated by the strain of creative capabilities of the whole Universe". In this connection, astronomer J.Jeans' thought is of interest: "Our bodies consist of the ash of planets that declined long ago".

N.F.Fedorov developed an idea of space settlement of mankind, idea of people obtaining immortality through scientific achievements.

K.E.Tsiolkovsky wrote about space exploration by means of special space vehicles: "The infinity of the Universe implies that life and intelligence are not unique. The Universe is "a sensible world". Therefore the Man should lean on moral standards. Humanism, which is the assistance of planets that had attained a higher stage of evolution to the retarded ones, should become the basis of morals".

V.I. Vernadsky considered the transition from biosphere to noosphere - the "sphere of mind" - as a natural phenomenon. It is the sphere that will determine further evolution on the Earth.

Russian cosmists demonstrated in their works that the equivalence of two principles - material and ideal ones - reflects the clear and complete idea Пf all the living objects.

Cosmists' humanism leaned against the world outlook of Voltaire, Diderot, Kant, d'Holbach, Helvétius, Saint-Simon. S.P.Korolev, who probably shared the philosophical views of cosmists, answering journalists' question about whether the astronauts had seen the God, responded as follows: "No, they have not :. They are gods themselves".

Cosmists stated that the world evolution suggested a permanent development of a human up to the moment, when intelligence would become a leading force of this evolution. Human interrelation with space will lead the civilization to a higher stage of development, and the earth ethics will transform into cosmic one. The standards and principles of cosmic ethics will determine the living activity of a man.

Faith in the progress and optimism suggests confidence that for 4 billions years left till the Solar system catastrophe, the man-space assimilation will occur. Here, one should not forget that, according to current notions, only 4% of the Universe can be cognized, and remaining 96% are attributed to the so-called "dark matter" and "dark energy".

In the present paper context, it seems reasonable to emphasize that cosmonautics is founded on cosmism's world-outlook views and is soaked with faith in intelligence, optimism, and humane morals.

3. Cosmonautics' Mission

Three epoch-making events reflect the Civilization progress in the 20^th century: the appearance of nuclear synthesis, cybernetics and cosmonautics.

The idea of "cosmonautics" has its roots in ancient Greece. It reflects the idea of space as a universe of harmony and world regularities. The term "cosmonautics", accepted later by Americans, is a synonym of this notion only in the form, but not in the content.

Cosmonautics (cosmonautics), as a new field of scientific knowledge, emerged at the beginning of the 20^th century on the basis of world-outlook views of cosmism and began to be formed in Russia.

Formation of cosmonautics in Russia, which later became a pioneer of space age and the native land of the first-ever astronaut, has deep socio-economic and socio-political roots and is determined, along with civilization progress, by inherent features of Russian society.

When in the 15-17^th centuries the cultural centers moved from the East to the West, Russia continued its traditional archaic evolution. The natural environment stipulated an extensive way of economy intensification by means of incorporation of new territories. The latter was promoted by challenges from Asia and then from Europe. Such features of the Russian character, as tolerance and patience, diligence and wastefulness, thoughtfulness and sluggishness, communicability and respectfulness, reverie and mysticism, desperateness and selflessness, mercy and compassion, were manifested.

Peter the Great pushed Russia on the way of modernization according to the "western" pattern. He started with extension of western boundaries annexing Poland and Sweden. Peter the Great and the Russian authorities that followed him carried out the modernization not in "westernization" way, but according to the so-called "catching-up model of evolution". The objective and subjective reasons hindered to implant the West European civilization into the Russian reality. Peter the Great borrowed much from the "modernist style", including some political inventions. At the same time, till the end of the 19^th century Russia remained an illiterate pseudo-european country ...

The abolition of serfdom is considered to be one of the milestones of the Russian history. The reform implemented by Alexander II formally translated the country to the capitalist economic management, but, in its essence, changed neither material, nor spiritual status of people. Remaining limited to primary education available independent of the estate, Russian elite was still was convinced of being useless to enlighten and educate the people.

At present the President of Russia has declared himself a successor of Alexander II in modernization of Russia. We cannot but hope only that this claim was not caused by the identity of views of the state education system and monarchical government.

Low standards of living, social contradictions and, simultaneously, the influence of European culture at the beginning of the 20^th century led Russia to revolutionary events.

Just before and during these events, the pleiad of Russian advocates of jet propulsion and enthusiasts of space exploration, led by the teacher of Kaluga secondary school K.E.Tsiolkovsky, laid the basis of cosmonautics. K.E.Tsiolkovsky, who is justly considered a founder of cosmonautics, laid philosophical, natural-scientific and technological basis of penetration of Man into space.

At the maiden stage, cosmonautics was restricted to technological aspects of space flights, and the wide range of transportation tasks was solved.

K.E. Tsiolkovsky in a series of more than 700 works demonstrated for the first time that "Only a rocket built in a special manner would help mankind to break through the chains of Earth gravity and enter the interplanetary space".

Priority in the idea of jet propulsion application to aerostatics dates back to the end of the 19^th century and belongs to the Russian member of "Narodnaya Volya" ("The People's Freedom") organization N.I.Kibalchich.

At the same time Prof. I.V.Meshchersky published his works, in which the basic equations of rocket dynamics were stated.

Without reading works by Tsiolkovsky, scientist and inventor Yu.V.Kondratyuk from Poltava (his real name was Alexandre Ignatyevich Shargey) submitted his idea of a space flight. His book "Outer Space Conquest", published in 1929, was considered by specialists as "the most complete study on interplanetary traveling among all the existing ones in the Russian and foreign literature".

One of the lunar program managers, American John Houbolt recalls: "When in the early morning of March 1968 :. I watched the launch of Apollo-9 from the Cape Canaveral towards the Moon, I thought at this moment about the Russian Yury Kondratyuk, who elaborated that route, along which our three astronauts had to fly".

In the late twenties - early thirties of the last century the engineers of many countries turned to jet propulsion problems. R.Goddard (USA), N.I.Tikhomirov and V.P.Glushko (USSR), J.Oberth (Germany), and E.Sänger (Austria) began the experiments with liquid-propellant rocket engines.

F.A.Zander, who combined the qualities of theorist, practitioner and organizer of work in cosmonautics, devoted his life to the space flights theory and rocket engineering. He was the first head of the well-known GIRD group (Group for the Study of Reactive Motion) and created the first Soviet laboratory engine OR-1 powered by benzene and compressed air in 1930.

In the thirties, at the Gas-dynamic Laboratory of Moscow GIRD, the Jet Institute (RNII), in the USSR, the experimental liquid-propellant rocket engines of ORM ("test rocket motor") series were produced, and the projects of liquid-propellant ballistic missiles of RLA and GIRD types were developed.

In 1933 one of GIRD missiles designed by M.K.Tikhonravov (some time later, together with S.P.Korolev he created the first artificial Earth satellite) reached the altitude of 400 m. It was a real success if compared to the missile launched in the USA in 1926 to the altitude of 12.5m and the German missile that reached the altitude of 100m in 1931.

From the historical point of view it is remarkable that it was not cosmonautics that stimulated the development of rocket engineering, but vice versa. Missiles produced to improve the armament ensured the development of cosmonautics.

In their evolution through centuries, the missiles passed the way from the elementary powder missiles up to the most complicated flying vehicles without significant variations.

љRocket engineering began its development in Russia in the 17^th century, when Peter the Great established the first-ever State rocket production enterprise - Moscow Rocket Institution. Russian missiles, designed by K.I.Konstantinov and other inventors in the 19^th century, were the top items of the European rocketry of that time.

In 1912, N.I.Tikhomirov, who became later one of the pioneers of liquid-propellant rocket engines development, presented the design of "self-powered jet mines".

The works in the field of jet propulsion were supported by the Soviet administration in terms of solving military tasks.

Powder missiles were used in military operations in the region of the Halh River and in Fin-land. Development of high-efficient jet armament (well-known "Katyusha"), capable of mas-sive firing at the enemy, significantly helped the Soviet Army during the Great Patriotic War.

Unfortunately, the results obtained in the field of solid propellants, were forgotten in the post-war period, and the leadership in solid-propellant intercontinental missiles was captured by the USA.

Repressions of the thirties caused great moral and material damage to the Soviet Union, which along with other troubles led to disintegration of the works on jet propulsion.

At the same time, Wernher von Braun, a talented German designer, developed a liquid-propellant ballistic missile V-2 capable of delivering a warhead of 1 ton to the distance of about 300 km; and a batch production of the missile began.

Ballistic missiles were transferred from the experimental field into the practical application, which was of major historic importance. Not only the development of rocket industry began, but also the industrial foundation was laid for the future cosmonautics.

The Cold war, which was through no fault of the Soviet Union, demanded a ballistic missile capable of transporting "nuclear" warheads over intercontinental distances.

This task was brilliantly solved by efforts of the intellectual and industrial potential of the country. On 27 August 1957, the first ever intercontinental ballistic missile R-7 deprived the USA of invulnerability and guaranteed a strategic parity to our country.

To provide national security and social-economic development, the Soviet Union had to solve a difficult task of consolidating success.

US economics was far more powerful than the Soviet one, and it could ensure the twenty fold superiority over the Soviet Union in nuclear missiles. The USSR government spent all available resources on parrying this threat, and by 1975 the gap was reduced down to 1:3. Powerful infrastructure was created in the rocket industry.

In addition to Korolev Design Bureau (DB), four large Rocket Production Centers were established, which were located in the cities of Dnepropetrovsk, Kuibyshev, Zlatoust, and Krasnoyarsk. Later, aircraft factories were set up in Omsk and Orenburg.

To provide combat readiness of ballistic missiles, the latter was redirected towards high-boiling propellant. Owing to V.P.Glushko's efforts, unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) began to be used as propellant.

The development of submarine-launch missiles began at the Special Design Bureau (SDB)-385 (Zlatoust city); development of ampoule-type missiles began in DB-52 (Moscow).

The silo-type launch installations were built over the whole territory of the country.

The R-7 missile was intended for canceling out the threat of nuclear war. Being capable of attaining the orbital velocity, it ensured simultaneous solution of the epoch-making task of space breakthrough.

On 4 October 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first artificial Earth satellite into the Earth orbit. It was the space age start and initiation of rapid development of cosmonautics.

After the space age initiation, Cosmonautics (theory and practice of space flights) gain a significant impetus in its development on the basis of synthesis of knowledge in the fields of natural, engineering and social sciences providing, in particular, the extension of social sphere. The problems of space exploration (in particular, considering space as a habitat) and involvement of space into the social sphere are dominating nowadays.

"Cosmization" covers many fields of life activity. The following notions appeared: "space biology", "space medicine", "space law", "space communication", "space navigation", and "space earth sciences".

50 years of space age have demonstrated that implementation of K.E.Tsiolkovsky's ideas concerning propagation of terrestrial forms of life to the Universe is a matter of distant future. At the same time, cosmonautics is developing along the trajectory of the target function that was determined by K.E.Tsiolkovsky. This is confirmed by the space flights of the first earthman Yu.Gagarin and other Soviet astronauts, and subsequent flights of Americans to the Moon.

Space activity is performed in two main directions: scientific research of space, its properties as a new region of "cosmosphere", which is gradually getting involved into the interests of inquisitive Humanity; and utilization of space and its properties for production and distribution (transmission) of information, energy, materials and application in different spheres of human activity.

Investigations aimed at acquiring knowledge about space and the Earth as its integral part represent the space exploration outpost. They promote space utilization and implicitly influence the social and economic progress.

In this respect, the tasks of global informatization are brought to the foreground. This implies promotion of awareness of society owing to new information technologies and promising means, including space-based ones.

The successes achieved in the field of space utilization are also partly described in Section 8.

Staying of a man in space is particularly significant issue of space activity. Yu.Gagarin's space flight was an epoch-making event in the Civilization history.

Manned space flights have become and still remain a benchmark in estimation of space activity successes. These flights are significant from social and political points of view. They stimulate technologies of production and application of space means. They assist in studying space environment properties and, possibly, more profound space exploration. At the same time, the efficiency of manned flights seems to be ambiguous.

At present, space research results are attained both by automatic means, and by manned flights. But space exploration is mainly performed by the artificial Earth satellites.

Today, the Man in space appears in two roles: as a subject (object) of space research and as an operator.

In the first case there are premises for more successful solution of the task of researching space environment as a habitat. As to acquiring the data on physical, chemical, biological parameters of space environment, here the capabilities of astronauts are rather restricted.

When a man acts as an operator, the efficiency of control and maintaining technical means depends on perfection of applied information technologies.

The situation in manned cosmonautics is briefly presented in Sections 4 and 7.

Informational and energy aspects of cosmonautics

Information appears in two forms: on the one hand, as a target - for acquiring knowledge on space and society informatization; on the other hand, information is a means of space activity organization.

Energy aspect of direct (mediated) staying of the Man in space is associated with transportation and functioning of target objects in some region of space. At present, this task is the most laborious, but usually it represents only an intermediate aim. Space flights implementation which includes the solution of basic problems of mechanics and control processes, power engineering and machine building takes the central place in cosmonautics.

4. Methodological basis of cosmonautics

Having realized the necessity of holistic cognition of objects, processes and phenomena in space and their properties in space and time, K.E. Tsiolkovsky actually laid the foundation for the system approach (SA) as a methodological basis of cosmonautics.

Cosmonautics now represents a field of knowledge, the scientific-fundamental nature of which is revealed in the course of systematic cognition of human life and environment.

The profound understanding of material and spiritual world's properties promotes progressing differentiation of branches of knowledge. At the same time, penetration into the special picture of the world, down to micro (nano) scales, brings the systematic (holistic) view of a problem, comprehension of the determinants of its aims and solutions to the foreground.

"I believe that learning the parts without knowing the whole is as impossible, as learning the whole without knowing its parts" (Blaise Pascal).

SA is an expression of special description and analysis of reality "as a whole" - its systematic nature. From the standpoint of system approach, the explication of space activity by some system of actions aimed at creation and purposeful usage of a particular class of complex technogenic systems ("space systems" (SS) according to accepted terminology), is an efficient measure.

The science does not possess any tools for formal description of complexity. These difficulties are of fundamental nature. At the same time, the system approach provides the premises for mathematical modelling and computational experiment with complex technological systems. The model, that plays a key part in new information technologies, makes it possible to use the system approach for generation of information about the considered object.

The formal model of a complex system can be presented as follows:

S = R(m) P_k,

where: m is a set;

R is a ratio;

P is a system-generating property;

k is an index that characterizes various conceptions of a system.

Here the concept of "a system" reflects invariant meanings, which include:

a) integrity S Ì X´Y (where X and Y are input and output variables, respectively);

b) relativity S = <б₁...... б_n; R₁...... R_m> (where A₁...... б_n is a family of components; R₁...... R_m is

љљљљљљљљ a family of ratios);

c) diversity б₁ " ≠ "...... " ≠ " б_n.

 

The generality and singularity of this class of complex systems is manifested in the unity of:

-            aims - outer space exploration;

-            technological means of reaching the aims, including spacecrafts, transportation means, as well as the ground means of users and control of SS;

-            natural environment (space environment).

All basic projects implemented in the space age period are, in their essence, the following SSs: the first artificial Earth satellite, the first flight of a Man into space, manned flights and Automatic Interplanetary Station (AIS) flights to the Moon, missions to the planets of the Solar system, AIS for Universe observations. Applied satellite systems can be also ascribed to these projects.

The term "space system" was applied for the first time in the Soviet Union in the sixties during the development of the satellite personal radio communication system, and then it has been widely used for applied SS. The "space mission" notion is applied in scientific space research.

Necessary condition of operability of a complex system is a number of attributed, including: intentionality, integrity, acceptability, succession, compatibility, and dynamism.

In our opinion:

Intentionality is formed at setting space activity aims.

SS integrity is manifested in the properties resulting from integration of components of a system that is preserved under the external environment conditions. SS integrity breaks when external links prevail over internal ones. The scale of a system is critical as well. As the system is complicated, its destruction becomes possible. Otherwise, the risk exists that SS can lose the capability to fulfill its target functions.

Acceptability appears as a commensurability of aims and means of their achievement. It is determined by material and intellectual resources, as well as by political limitations and time factor. The technological aspect of "acceptability" attribute is largely determined by capabilities of rocket-and-space hardware which provides transportation, as well as direct or indirect staying of a Man in space. The lack of "acceptability" attribute in the "Constellation" system, designed for the Martian mission claimed by President Bush, has lead President Obama to the decision to terminate this project.

SS succession has a dialectic nature and possesses scientific, system and technological aspects. SSs are developed allowing for the world experience in space activity. In case of ballistic missiles the succession was observed in development of Russian launch vehicles "Cosmos", "Cyclone", "Dnepr", and "Rokot".

The use of unified space platforms for artificial Earth satellites (AES) and AIS is popular in the world practice. The platform analogues from the available technological backlog serve as a basis for the platform unification. Succession is some kind of restraint for new developments, but it is not supposed to impede them. In particular, this is the reason, why SS should possess the "dynamism" attribute.

Dynamism defines a spatial-temporal state.

The spatial-temporal diversity of SS states is characterized by "global" extension of its energy and information links, "space" velocities of its components, as well as by long-term "life" cycle with short duration of phases of the latter.

Space and time appear, on the one hand, as metric characteristics of SS and, on the other hand, as correlates of its "global" aims and tasks. Spatial-and-temporal properties determine the role and place of particular SS in solution of target tasks of space activity.

For example, geostationary AES "Raduga" was developed according to the structural-dynamic pattern with an oriented solar array and a block of antennas rigidly fastened on the spacecraft. These antennas differed from those of "Intelsat" and "Molniya" communication AESs operated at that time. Transition to a new structural-dynamic pattern provided "dynamism" to spacecraft structure and gave chances to increase energy potential of Earth-space-Earth radio links. These chances were implemented in the direct TV-broadcasting spacecraft "Ekran".

Compatibility implies conjugation of a newly developed system with environment. The presence of a system attribute is clearly illustrated by geostationary "Terra Star-1" AES launched in 2009, which provides mobile communication in S-band and conjugation with cellular communication stations in Ku-band.

Attributes of SS as a complex system are implemented in its structure and functions. SS with the given properties is synthesized using the principles of system engineering, which covers, on the system approach basis, the whole cycle of works associated with creation of a system, and includes marketing, goal-setting, configuration of the system, its development, synthesis of subsystems and components, operation and evaluation of system's efficiency.

System engineering, as a technique of complex system design, is based on a rational combination of heuristic operations generalizing the experience, intuition and common sense with numerical methods of analysis and synthesis.

The system approach concepts and, in particular, the use of attributes of SS as criteria of its vital capacity were applied in space activity practice in the Soviet Union.

A classical example of development using SA concepts is the first-ever navigation-communication satellite system "Cyclone". System's intentionality was determined by the need for nuclear-missile parity of the USSR and USA and prevention of the threat from the satellite navigation system "Transit" which had already been operated within the framework of the program common with nuclear missile-carrier submarines and "Polaris"-type ballistic missiles.

System's acceptability was ensured by increased efficiency of marine missile carrying vehicles and by simultaneous application for satellite navigation and radio communication via "vehicle - land" line.

From the functional standpoint, "Cyclone" spacecraft possessed the attribute of succession with "Molniya-2" and "Transit" spacecrafts. On the other hand, its structural platform served as a basis for "Tsycada", "Nadezhda", "Sphera" and "Geo-IK" spacecrafts.

"Cyclone" compatibility was expressed through design association with "Cosmos" launch vehicle. It simultaneously provided the long-term operation of the system.

Dynamism of "Cyclone" spacecraft is manifested, in particular, in the content of its target task which is implemented in space and time.

The system approach methodology, which was popular in the Soviet Union, is often ignored in space activity of Russia. This is confirmed, in particular, by the innovative project of development of the transportation-power module on the basis of a megawatt-class nuclear power unit (YAERDU), which costs some hundreds billion rubles. In 2010, it was included in the president program of national economy modernization. Roscosmos managers consider this project to be able to solve the problems of manned flights in the 21^st century. In the authors' opinion, YAERDU is the only means of reaching Mars.

It is impossible now to thoroughly estimate the intentionality and acceptability of this YAERDU, because the authors do not possess so far the initial data on performance of this target payload.

Concerning succession of the project, the reference to earlier Soviet and US developments and single launches of a spacecraft with kilowatt-class nuclear power units, which were terminated due to operation complexities, seems inadequate.

The work should be started from scratch, and taking into account the experience in space activity, it will take not years but decades to perform bench and flight tests of YAERDU before the manned flight to Mars, the latter being possible only in case of successful testing.

It seems logical that the nuclear unit concept in the USA is now at the stage of expert appraisal. Generally speaking, the compatibility of nuclear power sources with manned flights within Solar system demands extensive studies and discussions. Many experts associate the future of manned flights within the Solar system with solar energy utilization.

The solar generators are being permanently improved. At present, multijunction gallium-arsenide photovoltaic cells are used with about 30% performance index.

American Ad Astra Rocket Company is now developing a magnetoplasma jet engine intended for scientific missions within the Solar system. The output power is around hundreds kW, and it is planned to be equipped with solar cells with a concentrator (implementation - 2015-2030).

In May 2010, Japan launched an interplanetary "Icarus" probe to Venus. This is the first ever spacecraft with a solar sail. The principle of operation of the latter consists in using the sunlight pressure. The sail membrane is made of a polyamide film with a diagonal of 20 m. Two strips of thin-film solar arrays made of amorphous silicon with the thickness of 25 microns are attached to each of the four lobes; these strips generate power up to 500 W. The mass of the spacecraft is 310 kg. Development of a hybrid plant is planned now consisting of a solar sail and an ion engine for the missions to Jupiter and Trojan asteroids.

Simultaneously, the world rocket production progresses along the traditional way of using hydrocarbon fuels.

In our opinion, YAERDU his project threatens to bring Russian cosmonautics to a dead end and has a prominent populistic tinge.

We also believe that the project "Multipurpose aerospace system for monitoring and warning of natural disasters" (нбKSн) initiated by Russia disagrees with the system approach. Roscosmos supposes to attract the world community to this project. This project does not possess any system attributes. Globalism of functions and structure of the project, as well as fuzziness of goals, threatens the integrity of the system. The project does not rely on certain space means to achieve the goals, and there are no signs of its compatibility with international space programs.

The "globalization" trend is not fresh for the given project. As far back as 1994, the American administration advanced the initiative to establish a Single Global Information Structure to provide people with knowledge using space-based means. However, this idea was not implemented because of a number of social, economic and technological contradictions.

We believe that the project of establishment of a regional multipurpose space system "Arctica" within the framework of the Federal Space Program (FSP) 2011-2020 is also incorrect. This system is designed for continuous meteorological monitoring of the arctic polar zone and provision of the cross-polar air routes with radio communication. Integrity of a system, consisting of two subsystems with heterogeneous structure and functions, seems doubtful. Acceptability of a system, which will cost, according to Roscosmos, 68 billion of rubles, is not studied with potential investors. Obviously, its authors have forgotten that today the sole right for prospecting and exploitation of hydrocarbon deposits of the Russian shelf belongs to some Russian tycoons, who do not seem to be going to invest in the given project. System's compatibility with other systems of similar purpose used in the world practice is absent. There are also no analogues for determining the succession of the system.

Besides, involvement of high-elliptical orbits in the system lowers the efficiency of meteorological monitoring because data acquisition on the global scale is impossible. This type of orbit was used in the Soviet Union for the first ever regional system of real-time radio communication and TV broadcasting "Molniya". There were no appropriate launch means available at that time, so it was impossible to utilize the geostationary Earth orbit. "Molniya"-type orbits allow serving the northern, sparsely populated regions; however, they were not used for commercial purposes due to unprofitability. This type of orbits is successfully used in many countries, including Russia, for military purposes for the early warning of missile attacks and radio communication systems.

Today the world practice of satellite monitoring is aimed at geostationary AESs integration with low-flying AESs in subpolar orbits. Significant results were obtained here both in the field of Earth remote sensing (ERS) and in mobile satellite communication. Dozens of ERS spacecrafts are being operated now by spacefaring nations. Russia, having only one spacecraft ("Meteor-M") in subpolar orbit and one geostationary AES ("Electro"), instead of expansion of orbital AES systems, has decided to "surpass the world society without overtaking it" with its plans to establish some "original" space system. This project cannot be considered as a technological breakthrough, as its authors believe it to be.

5. Goals and tasks of space activity

"Knowing what to do is more important,

than knowing how to do"

(N.Wiener)

The property of a complex system of any nature is its intentionality, i.e. the presence of a goal the system has to reach. The goals are typified according to a series of criteria. One should distinguish:

-       goal-setting behavior, which is characteristic for a system with its inherent aim; this is a property of a self-organized (intelligent) system;

-       controlling behavior, which is characteristic for complex engineering systems.

SSs belong to the class of purposeful systems, the goals of which are set by a higher level system.

Intentionality of SS is determined by the essence of cosmonautics and is implemented in the process of generation and transmission of information, energy, materials in space for the sake of social sphere extension.

The aims are specified in correlation with its attributes ensuring the presence of a system throughout its "life cycle". Relationships between complex system's means and goal represent a particular case of cause-and-effect relations with the primacy of the latter.

Incorrectly stated goals lead a system to destruction, whereas incorrectly chosen means lead to deterioration of the system's parameters.

There are direct and long-term goals. Direct goals which represent the desirable result of activity, achievable over a certain time interval; they are characterized by a set of quantitative data or parameters of this result; in this context the notions of "goal" and "task" are identical. Long-term (perspective) goals are the desirable result, which can probably be approached over some time interval; the problematical character of long-term goals is caused not only by the indeterminacy in perspectives of means, but also by impossibility of problem statement. The problematic goals can be vague and abstract enough. Such goals of space activity include the goals of ISS and manned flights in near-Earth orbits.

The goals in cosmonautics are also ranked into final and intermediate ones. The final goals are achieved during generation and distribution of information about phenomena, processes, and objects in space and on the Earth. An intermediate goal is usually transportation and maintenance of cargos (target payloads) in the given space region.

The space activity goals are motivated by the material, spiritual, and social-political values. "Space research should grasp imagination," wrote Karl Sagan.

The need for recognition and rivalry immanent to a Man prevent global integration of society for space exploration purposes. Therefore the space activity should accomplished within the state framework and should not have a competitive character.

The practice of recent decades has shown that, because of the shift of emphasis in universal values towards enrichment, the distortions in motivating space activity goals may occur (and have actually happened). The monetary approach as a state policy basis has led to decline of professional interest and popularity of cosmonautics in society.

Indeed, conceptual aspect in goal statement in a country can be judged by the announcements of its leaders.

Current space policy of the USA is characterized by President Obama's statement made in 2009: "To provide the power of our space program in the long run, we should remember the great adventures and discoveries that are possible in the future, :It is necessary to recover the sense of excitement and interest in the space program that existed earlier, : The preparation of the mission corresponding to the 21st century realities will become one of the basic functions : :"

Russian authorities' attitude towards space activity in Russia is ambiguous. In 2005, V.V.Putin disagreed with making the ambitious space exploration projects a national idea. "Our national idea should be provision of economic growth : at the expense of development of innovative branches of economics, including space sphere". This announcement was made against the backdrop of proclamation of building of sports complex for the Winter Olympic Games at the southern territory of Russia as a "national" project.

Three years later (in 2008) V.V.Putin called on to implement new really ambitious projects in space activity. But in 2011, while discussing the governmental program of armament for 2011-2020, he did not mention space activity among the main parts of defense-industrial sector.

љIt is reasonable to recall that N.S.Khrushchev attached great importance to cosmonautics. During the Cold war period, he officially declared: "Successes in space are not less important for us now, than building of combat missiles".

As to the content of space programs of the USA, Russia and other spacefaring nations, they differ not only in amount of financing, but also in target functions of space activity.

The U.S. space strategy, presented by Obama in 2010, includes manned flights to Mars, Moon and asteroids. It is oriented towards the international cooperation and active involvement of private companies. Besides, it is noted that the priority lies in observations of our planet and space safety.

Major aims, basic principles, priority directions and tasks of space research and exploration in the Russian Federation were formulated in "The basic principles of Russian policy in the field of space activity up to 2020 and later on". This document ranks the space activity according to four priorities.

The first priority, which is rather generalized and comprehensive, is as follows: "Meeting the needs of state defense and security, social-economic sphere and science in space activity results at the given level by deployment and efficient use of national orbital constellations of spacecrafts of required composition".

Epithets "given" and "required" confirm that the first priority belongs to reaching the long-term aims, rather than solution of particular tasks.

The second priority is "provision of guaranteed access of Russia into space and independence of Russian space activity throughout the whole spectrum of tasks. This is achieved, among other means, by building the launch site (cosmodrome) of scientific and social-economic purposes on the Russian territory". It follows from the Federal Target Program (FTP) "Russian Cosmodromes" that in this case "Vostochny" (Eastern) launch site is meant.

We do not doubt the need for provision of independence of Russian space activity, but nevertheless one question arises here: why the priority of construction of the launch site on the Russian territory is considered to be higher than building of space vehicles? What is the sense of building the launch site without involving it in solution of well-defined national defense and security tasks?

The launch sites built in the Soviet Union were created according to this very concept; the network of these launch sites in "Kapustin Yar", "Baikonur", "Plesetsk" ensured the parity in the Cold war and the priority in cosmonautics.

This problem is turned upside down in Russia.

As far back as 1995, the Government Regulation "On measures for building "Angara" space rocket system" was accepted. The northernmost-in-the-world launch site "Plesetsk"was chosen for launch of rocket carriers. The idea was declared of providing free access of Russia into space via launches of all types of Russian spacecrafts from the Russian territory. Simultaneously, "Svobodny" (Free) launch site situated in the southeastern Russia was closed. However, a "small" detail was missed (as L.N.Tolstoy noted "It was all very nice on paper, but the ravines were forgotten"). The geographical position of the launch site does not allow performing manned flights over the existing route with inclination of 51º. Energy loss of "Angara-5" launch vehicle (LV) that accompanies the process of putting a spacecraft into the geostationary orbit from this launch site leaves it no chances to compete even with "Proton-M" LV.

The third priority in the "Basic principles of Russian policy :." is given to "fulfillment of international obligations of Russia, including those concerning the International Space Station".

The problems with possible independent significance for the space activity strategy seem to be mixed here.

The task of "completing the deployment of Russian sector of the Station and enhancement of its scientific and applied usage" is motivated in this document by the prospects of orienting Russian space manned program towards the ISS operation up to 2020, and towards establishment of "new space infrastructure on the basis of orbital manned system" after 2020.

But the choice of manned flights on near-Earth orbits as an ultimate goal for the future looks paradoxical. At the end of 2010, conclusions and recommendations were drawn at the summit of 25 space agencies that the next logical step in space research would be a manned flight to Mars: and the manned flights in near-Earth orbits : : were considered reasonable as an intermediate goal.

љThe importance of orbital flights for Russia at the present stage was commented by astronaut Georgy Grechko: ": Orbital flights give us nothing already :. We have gained from them everything we could. Thank God, we have ceased carrying tourists, which was a profanation of space, as a matter of fact".

But it was a premature relief. American Space Adventures Company signed an agreement with Roscosmos and Rocket Space Corporation "Energiya", according to which the company will get three seats per year for tourists onboard "Soyuz" spacecraft beginning with 2013.

The only thing the Russians managed to make sure while operating ISS was that according to astronaut G.Padalka: "Russian orbital segment is far behind the segments of our partners. Its construction is based on technologies of the middle eighties, which were developed by that great power. New Russia has generated nothing new for 18 years of existence! Our lag in various technologies ranges from 7 to 30 years".

Another problem is associated with "fulfillment of international obligations of Russia" mentioned in the document, which seems to cause speculation about the essence of the international cooperation in Russian space activity.

The international cooperation is known to be of basically dialectic nature. Counteraction of the USSR and USA, rather than cooperation, resulted once in development of the first satellite and in the first manned flight into space and, later, in American missions to the Moon.

The international cooperation includes literally an exchange of knowledge and technologies, joint activity, and participation in the space services market. Joint Soviet-American Apollo-Soyuz flight performed in 1975 played a significant role in exchange of knowledge. The international exchange of knowledge is performed with participation of state structures, legal entity and individuals, during the flights of spacecrafts and space vehicles, in various international organizations, as well as at symposia, conferences, and workshops.

љThe intergovernmental cooperation in technologies and products plays an important role in space activity. Commercial, political and social interests of parties are mixed here.

But nowadays, having wasted the state resources and having put the state on a monetary way of development, Russian reformers saw only one aim in the international cooperation, that is commercial interest. Such notions as political and military parity, scientific-technological priority, interests and security of the country have been forgotten.

At the early nineties, according to american side's wishes, the Soviet long-living space station "Mir" that was put into orbit in 1986 was deorbited. Simultaneously, the decision was made to take part in the international space station built by the USA.

Joint operation of the ISS has begun, and station functioning stimulates the development of space technologies in Europe and Japan. This gives the USA political dividends, and Russia obtains commercial benefit. China refused to participate in ISS project.

Onboard the ISS the training of astronauts of some countries is carried out and scientific experiments with limited results are fulfilled. Maintenance and repair of unique engineering device, Hubble space telescope, performed by American astronauts for the first time in the world practice can be considered a weighty contribution of the ISS.

ISS activity is provided by American "Shuttles" and Russian "Soyuzes' supplemented by the automatic transportation vehicle ATV of the European Space Agency (ESA) and Japanese HTV automatic cargo spacecraft.

The USA and Russia utilize the results of joint ISS operation in different manner. The USA are terminating Space Shuttle program in 2011 and begin to build new "Orion" spacecraft. They afford an opportunity to Russia for the nearest decade to load its space industry with production of obsolete and updated "Soyuzes" for the transport support of ISS instead of promising developments.

While there are idle talks and irresponsible declarations in Russia concerning the things like by what means and where to direct the manned flights, the USA, having generated (together with Russia) the necessary technological groundwork at ISS, begin moving towards planets and bodies of the Solar system. The personnel aspect of the American-Russian ISS partnership seems interesting. 36 astronauts and cosmonauts worked onboard the ISS in 2010, including 25 Americans, 8 Russians, 2 Japanese and 1 Italian.

"Investigations of Solar system planets and bodies for the benefit of basic knowledge about the surrounding world, solution of applied problems of extra-terrestrial resources utilization, study of the Earth evolution and searching for extra-terrestrial life" are mentioned in the "Basic principles of Russian policy :." as the fourth and last priority. It would be quite adequate for Russian space activity, but, beginning with the nineties, the flights of Russian Automatic Interplanetary Stations (AIS) were terminated, and space research has been carried out using AISs produced abroad. Space research financing is accomplished in Russia according to the residual principle.

References

1.          G.Ursul. Space exploration. н., Mysl', 1967 (in Russian).

2.          V.Shebsheevich. Introduction into space navigation theory. н., Sovetskoe radio, 1971 (in Russian).

3.          M.Messarovich. Theory of hierarchic multi-level systems. н., Mir, 1973 (in Russian).

4.          Hall A. Methodology for system engineering, M., Sovetskoe radio, 1975 (in Russian)

5.          G.Chernyavsky, V.Bartenev. Orbits of communication satellites. н., Svyaz', 1978 (in Russian).

6.          G.Maximov. Theory of spacecraft development. M., Nauka, 1980 (in Russian).

7.          N.Wiener. Cybernetics. н., Nauka, 1983 (in Russian).

8.          V.I.Vernadsky. Origin and eternity of life. н., 1989 (in Russian).

9.          Y.Koptev, G.Chernyavsky. Soviet Aerospace Industry Programs and Plans. Proceedings of AIAA Annual Meeting, Arlington, Virginia, April 1991.

10.       G.M.Chernyavsky. Subsidiary benefits of space technology. Report at the 34-th Session of UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Graz (Austria), May 1991.

11.       K.E.Tsiolkovsky. Essays about the Universe. н., 1992 (in Russian).

12.       E.P.Velikhov, G.M.Chernyavsky. From "star wars" to the global system of world community protection. "Nezavisimaya gazeta" (Independent newspaper), No.109, M., June 1992 (in Russian).

13.       G.Chernyavsky. Russian Spacecraft Design Course. Proceedings of University of New Mexico, March 1994.

14.       A.L.Chizhevsky. Cosmic pulse of life. н., 1995 (in Russian).

15.       The law on space activity (Federal laws: No. 147-F3, November 29, 1996; No.15-F3, January 10, 2003; No. 8-F3, March 5, 2004; No. 122-F3, August 22, 2004; No. 147-F3, February 2, 2006) (in Russian).

16.       G.Chernyavsky. Russian Regional System for Earth Observation from Space. Proceedings of the 38th Session, Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, General Assembly, Vienna, February 2001.

17.       G.Chernyavsky. The Role of Space in Global Security. Proceedings of the International Conference on Toward Fusion of Air and Space, Tel-Aviv, March 2001.

18.       Yu.A.Mozzhorin, V.P.Senkevich, G.M.Chernyavsky. Methodology of complex analysis of complex space systems. Enc. "New science-intensive technologies in engineering", vol. 21, JSC "ENTSITECH" Research Institute, н., 2002 (in Russian).

19.       V.V.Favorsky, I.V.Meshcheryakov. Cosmonautics and rocket engineering industry. н., Mashinostroenie, 2003 (in Russian).

20.       G.M.Chernyavsky. New technologies in satellite systems. Journal of Information technologies and computer systems, No.1, 2005 (in Russian).

21.       G.M.Chernyavsky. System aspects of space instrument engineering. Report at the scientific Conference, FSUE "RNII KP", н., September 2006 (in Russian).

22.       G.M.Chernyavsky. Cosmonautics from the first satellite till now. Report at the 7th International Symposium, RCSGSO, н., June 2007 (in Russian).

23.       The basic principles of Russian policy in the field of space activity up to 2020 and later on. Approved by the President of the Russian Federation on April 24, 2008 (in Russian).

24.       O.T.Bogomolov. Economics and social environment. IES, Russian Academy of Sciences, н., 2008 (in Russian).

25.       Meeting of the Council on information society development: the verbatim record. н., Kremlin, 2009 (in Russian).

26.       V.O.Klyuchevsky. Course of Russian history. н., 2009 (in Russian).

27.       G.M.Chernyavsky. Space activity at the beginning of the 21^st century. International Russian-American Scientific Journal APAAS 2 (29), 2009 (in Russian).

28.       Yu.D.Granin. Modernization of Russia. Vestnik RAN (Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences), vol. 80, No.11, 2010 (in Russian).

29.       G.M.Chernyavsky. Methodological aspects of space activity. Report at the scientific session, Kazan, May 2010 (in Russian).

30.       A.Yurevich. Asocial socialization. Vestnik RAN (Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences), vol. 81, No.1, 2011 (in Russian).

31.       Scientific-Technological Information Center "Poisk". Information Bulletin "Space activity of countries", issues of 2008-2011 (in Russian).

32.       Central Research Institute GONTI. Rocket and space technology (from foreign press), issues of 2009-2011 (in Russian).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Grigory Markelovich Chernyavsky - Director of "Cosmonit" Scientific and Technology Center of Russian Space Systems Corp., Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, specializes in research and development of space information systems. He is the author of more than 200 scientific works, 40 patents and 6 monographs. Under his guidance and direct participation a series of satellite telecommunication and navigation systems (including GLONASS), the first-ever personal satellite communication system ("Strela") and direct TV-broadcasting system ("Ekran") were developed.